The Age of Napoleon
Despite my love for this time period, this shall be but a brief chapter, relative to the mountains of books that have been composed about Napoleon and his conquests. However, this is merely because I seek to compose a short, general summary of events. I wish to avoid writing a long, complicated series of essays that only a historian could read, because my goal in writing this series is to provide a simple, basic rundown of this era of history in an entertaining manner. So, I will state that, if one should wish to read more in depth about Napoleon and this time period, I would suggest reading more credible (and detailed) official biographies and works. If one should wish for a more historical-fictional, thrilling piece from the perspective of a nation that was nearly conquered by Napoleon, I could request no greater work than “War and Peace,” by Leo Tolstoy. Now, on to the chapter.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15, 1769. This was (and still is) an island in the Mediterranean Sea, and was formerly owned by Italy, before France absorbed the land into its own nation around the time of Napoleon’s birth. Thus, Napoleon Bonaparte is actually an Italian name.
Napoleon soon ventured to mainland France, received an education at a religious school, and, finally, became involved in the French military when he was enrolled into a cadet school in May of 1779 (yes, I am aware that he would have not yet been ten years old at this time. I guess that back then, they trained them young and used them when they were “ripe”). He would graduate from another academy later on, and enter the French military as a low-class officer.
Napoleon would soon become beloved by his troops, and generally disliked by his officers. This was because Napoleon was supposedly very gracious toward the troops that served under him: he would eat in their mess houses instead of the officer’s mess, would engage in conversations with his subordinates, and was generally kinder to the lower-ranking soldier. The officers who served under him, however, he treated with more sterness and formality.
He quickly rose in the ranks, and in 1795, he was promoted to the rank of general. This is credited to the fact that, in that year, he aided the suppression of royalist forces who were staging a countermovement against the revolutionary government. Aside from this, Napoleon fought many conflicts abroad (this was because, as stated earlier in this book, the French had attempted to unite the French nation against other European powers. This resulted in constant fighting since 1792). In fact, it was largely because of Napoleon that the Austrians, who had nearly taken Paris during the disarray of the French Revolution, were defeated in 1797.
In 1799, Napoleon took power in a coup d’etat. The transition of power was perhaps as swift as it was because Louis XVII (1785-1795) had died young without really having a chance to take the throne, and Louis XIII (1755-1824) was not yet in power (though, he would rule after Napoleon’s second exile). In 1804, Napoleon was being crowned by Pope Pius VII (1742-1823) when he took the crown from the Pope’s hands, and placed it atop his own head, proclaiming himself emperor. He was the first emperor that France had seen rule the nation in a millennium.
Now, most individuals are very familiar with the whole story about the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815) and his many grand conquests, but before I delve into that, let us first cover what Napoleon did to stabilize France. After all, it was still reeling from its very bloody revolution.
Firstly, the Directory had been shut down when Napoleon took the throne in 1799. With the last of the revolutionary governments out of the way, it was time to make some reforms.
Secondly, in 1801, Napoleon issued the Concordat, which largely served to make peace with the Catholic Church, which had been largely repressed by the revolutionaries. He returned France to the traditional calendar as well. However, not wishing to grant the Church too much power, and also in an attempt to appease the former revolutionaries, the Concordat still severely limited the Church’s power. In fact, one of its measures was the refusal to return land to the Church that it had lost during the French Revolution.
Thirdly, Napoleon created the Civil Code (Code Napoleon), in 1804. This was Napoleon’s attempt to ensure that the former revolutionaries of France would not be displeased with him. What it did was preserve many of the revolutionary goals. However, it still allowed for several to be detracted, including most of the rights that women had gained during the French Revolution. Napoleon also established that there would be no tax exemptions in France, so that the wealthy as well as the lower classes all had to pay their taxes.
Fourthly, Napoleon began issuing conscripts to draft more soldiers into the French military. This would greatly improve the strength and numbers of the French military forces. During the Revolution, the Nation in Arms (the revolutionary French military) was actually incredibly large and managed to push back invading European powers, so Napoleon wanted a similarly-large and abled military.
Fifthly, Napoleon began to regulate the mail and press, setting limits on what could or could not be published or sent via mail, and so forth.
Lastly, in this new Napoleonic government, the “Prefects” were created as central government agents that were responsible for reviewing all local government under Napoleon. These magistrates would carry out their jobs quite devotedly.
Finally, we come to the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon had a fascinating ability to glance at a map for a while and then formulate a whole effective battle plan in his head. He was an outstanding commander and rather effective at giving orders.
In 1796, when fighting the Austrians, Napoleon had taken Lombardy, and then much of Italy. He made his eldest brother, Joseph-Napoleon (1768-1844) (who was a lawyer) king of Naples, and then Spain, when it was captured (after a brief insurrection against the French) in 1808 (I don’t know about you, but it seems to me that Napoleon’s parents were rather lazy in naming their children). In fact, as an interesting side note, Joseph-Napoleon was apparently a kind individual and, during Napoleon’s downfall, would move to the United States of America, where he spent most of his days on a large mansion estate in New Jersey. He was supposedly very charitable, and beloved by the local populace. You can visit his mansion (which is very impressive in its gardens) today, in Point Breeze, New Jersey (he was also quite the architect, having oversaw the construction numerous tunnels than ran underneath his property). Anyway, where was I? Ah, yes, Napoleon’s conquests.
When Napoleon began to invade the German regions and Prussia, he began to encounter more pushback. One individual worth mentioning here is Johan Gottlieb Fichte (1752-1814), a German philosopher who largely founded German idealism and attempted to spread German nationalism in opposition to the invading French forces.
In 1805, around the mountains of Bohemia, arguably the greatest battle of all of the Napoleonic Wars (and Napoleon’s greatest victory, arguably) took place: the Battle of Austerlitz (also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors). This confrontation took place within Austerlitz, Austria, and saw the grand armies of Emperor Napoleon, of France; Emperor Alexander I, of Russia; and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, of Austria. There were also many German forces present, as well as numerous troops from other nations and provinces. Napoleon would crush them all in that decisive, one-day battle on December 2.
From 1798 to 1801 (by now, you have probably realized that I am listing these by region rather than by timeline), Napoleon embarked on his “African Campaign.” He invaded Egypt and Syria, and fell in love with the Egyptian pyramids, statues, and relics. In fact, this campaign has been credited to the spread of interest in Ancient Egyptian culture across Europe, especially in England. (In fact, by the 1850s, an illegal mummy trade began booming in Egypt, because if there’s one thing we all love to have in our houses, it’s thousand-year-old corpses).
In fact, Napoleon’s France even fought the United States (yes, they did). This is known as the “Quasi War” (or the Franco-American War) (1798-1800), which was an official naval conflict against the two technically-allied nations. This war actually saw quite a few casualties and ship losses on both sides (as far as early-modern naval battles go). However, in 1803, Napoleon sold the Louisiana territory to the United States (this is known as the Louisiana Purchase) to fund the French navy, somewhat restoring former friendly relations.
Napoleon also had a habit of making and then breaking treaties with Russia, constantly, throughout the Napoleonic Era. Russia would offer to help France invade India, and then Russia was still invaded by Napoleon. They would fight alongside the French in the Ottoman lands, and yet were still later attacked by Napoleon.
Over the course of the many Napoleonic conflicts, Napoleon had created many interesting arrangements. The Treaties of Tilsit, for instance, were signed in 1807 by France, Austria, and Prussia, allowing France to “create a new European order.” An earlier treaty was also signed between France and Russia. Both of them were at the expense of Prussia, which lost about half of its pre-war territory to the French. However, within about a year, Napoleon was once again pushing on toward Russia.
The Grand Empire was also formed under Napoleon (may we please just appreciate how awesome that name is? If I were an emperor, of course I would call my greatest alliance the “Grand Empire!”). This was a forced alliance between France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia against the British.
In fact, the British would really be the main force that Napoleon would fail to conquer (“Rule Britannia! Britannia rules the waves!…” Now it’s stuck in your head). He would try to defeat the British in so many ways. In fact, he even issued something known as the Continental System, which was France’s attempt to defeat Britain by cutting off British exports. Before I conclude the French struggles with the British, however, allow me to complete my overview of the Russian front.
Many of you have probably seen that painting of Napoleon riding a rearing horse in the Russian winter as he points into the sky. Well, he was actually riding a donkey through the snow, hunched over with a blanket over him like a peasant (painters tended to exaggerate things just a *little* bit). Besides, the best painting of Napoleon is in the main traditional post-Medieval Government building in Ghent (if you ever get the chance to travel to Belgium, I highly recommend you visit it).
By 1812, Napoleon had managed to capture Vilna. He then moved on as far as Borodino, engaging in both major and minor confrontations along the whole way (cue “1812 Overture” music). While the victory status of the Battle of Borodino (September 7, 1812) is still disputed (the Russians technically defeated the French forces, but then retreated back to Moscow), ultimately, Napoleon would take the advance. About a week later, Napoleon captured the practically-unguarded Moscow (the Russian armies having already retreated from the city).
The city would be burned, however (both by French forces and retreating Russian civilians and soldiers), though Napoleon had attempted to pass rules preventing the burning of the city. In fact, many individuals were executed on incendiary charges. However, with little food, and a cold winter approaching, Napoleon would retreat back from Russia, and he was pursued by the Russian forces the entire way. The Russian campaign was the bloodiest of Napoleon’s campaigns. He would lose some 500,000 individuals, while Russia lost around 400,000. The Germans had also been forced to fight on the side of Napoleon, and there were over one and a half million soldiers involved in the fighting in all, not to mention the countless militia forces that would have been fighting on both sides.
However, it was not only the impressive military tactics of Russian Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov (1745-1813) that resulted in Napoleon’s retreat from France. The summer of 1812 was a very hot summer in Russia. It would have been absolutely dreadful for soldiers, in all their heavy equipment, to fight in that heat (I know, because, I’ve fought in temperatures that hot…In paintball. It was at times an agonizing experience). And, as misfortune would have it, the winter of 1812 would also be a record-breaking winter season in Russia, with freezing-cold temperatures (I can only imagine how how badly frozen paintballs hurt). In fact, the cold Russian winter is also often credited for largely defeating the German forces in Russia during the Second World War.
Historians still argue if Napoleon won or lost the Russian campaign. On the one hand, he did capture Moscow. On the other hand, he retreated from Moscow shortly after he captured it. Regardless, the retreat of the French from Russia would seriously wound Europe’s fear and respect for the French forces.
After his abdication via the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1814, Napoleon was exiled to Elba, an island in the Mediterranean Sea. However, in 1815, he would return during the Hundred Days, reclaim France and his popularity, and begin his campaign again. Allegedly, Napoleon was surrounded by French troops, and he held open his coat and shouted something like, “you may kill me if you wish, but would you really kill your own emperor?” (Note: these were not his exact words, as sources conflict on what his real words were). The soldiers, apparently, instead of killing him, hoisted Napoleon up and shouted “vive l’Emperor!”
After Napoleon’s first exile, and after the Hundred Days, on June 8, 1815, Napoleon would lead his French forces against the combined forces of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Nassau, Brunswick, and Hanover (the Seventh Coalition). The army of the Duke of Wellington (a title that did not exist until 1814), and the army of Prussia were also present, as were many Saxon soldiers and Germans from other regions. This became known as the Battle of Waterloo, and took place in present-day Belgium.
Napoleon’s armies were defeated, and in that same year of 1815, he was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821 (presumed to be from stomach cancer, hence why he tended to hold his hand inside his coat, gripping his stomach from the pain). Of course, he was not really in a traditional exile, because he pretty much lived in total comfort and with many servants until his death (new evidence points to the possibility that he may have been planning a second return to power in France). (On a peculiar note, Napoleon’s urethra is rumored to have been misplaced during his autopsy. I’d like to assume that the doctors wished to examine his urinary tract for signs of stomach cancer, but who knows? Supposedly, it was rediscovered and has passed ownership several times. It is now, as of the year 2020, claimed to be in the ownership of an American physician. It was also once apparently on display, though descriptions were not too kind, as it was claimed to look like “a dried up seahorse,” and “beef jerky…” Why do I know all this?).
Ok, so, moving back to more…Um…Formal topics of discussion, Napoleon was undoubtedly one of the greatest military commanders in all of human history, and is also frequently regarded as an excellent national leader, as well. He was a controversial figure, to say the least: he did many great things for France and other nations of Europe, but also many bad things, especially for minorities and by invading other nations. Though he attempted to retain many of the political gains that were made during the French Revolution, he largely contrasted them, reverting much of France back to its original state. In fact, under Louis XIII and, later, Louis “Pierre” Philippe (1773-1850) France would pretty much lose the revolutionary changes that had been preserved under Napoleon. The Napoleonic Era was a large mess of conflicts, and its conclusion would prompt a conservative resurgence and a desire to restore the old European order, but one that would ultimately fail.