Abstract

The goal of this paper is to inspect gender punishments and representations in three types of Hollywood and American films. First, characters from a classical era are closely examined because it is at this point in filmic history that gender disparities emerge strongest. Next, Mothers and Fathers in film are considered as they represent major gender roles among many societies. Third, the final girl/slasher film genre is briefly included as a final example of on onscreen gender depictions. Finally, it is worthy to examine the stereotypes which arise from these disparities – and what those effects are on humanity. To begin, although the Declaration of Independence declared in 1776 that “all ‘men’ are created equal” gender equality in film is noticeably absent. However, gender differences are not always obvious to a viewer. To explain, archetypes (i.e. stereotypes) often include one set of behaviors and punishments assigned to females, and a separate set of behaviors and punishments assigned to males. These pairs plainly hold women as inferior to men in accordance with a Freudian perspective on sex (Brannon, 2011, 105-6) to be followed up by another masculine school of psychology called behaviorism. Among these scholars B.F. Skinner introduced operate conditioning in 1938 − a successful technique using any stimuli as a punishment to decrease the likelihood of a repeated behavior. Later, behaviorism laid the framework for social learning theory which acknowledged the effectiveness of vicarious punishments, film, and prestigious models among social learning tools (Bandura, 1971). Looking back, it is conspicuous that with the rise of patriarchal ideologies in the early twentieth century a social learning system was invoked to reduce matriarchal figures. Therefore, since media is a reflection of societal norms which can transform reality (Ben-Zeev et al., 2012) the powers of social learning theory are herein not contented – its motives and outcomes are.

Film Noir

From about the 1940s thru the 1950s Hollywood produced a string of movies which followed a strict recipe of a male protagonist levied by a female antagonist. The moods of film noir are familiar to many with their low-key lighting, hard boiled language, and detective-like storytelling. While the intentions of film noir remain unclear, one theme was apparent to this researcher; women lose their souls. To prove this argument, two lead characters from four classic noir movies are deconstructed to partition the male’s behaviors and punishments from the female’s behaviors and punishments.

The Fool

The The Fool is good so he must save the Femme Fatale. These four noir movies are all narrated by a male protagonist – The Fool − as both a cautionary and confessionary tale. He is single, and met the attached femme fatale through an employment opportunity. Next, establishing the male protagonists’ ‘goodness’ prior to crossing paths with the female antagonist is crucial and serves many purposes. It signals his moral high ground, establishes the conscience and good intentions which plague him, and is a defense against bad decisions to save. To illustrate every component of this opening formula a brief synopsis of each film is hereby offered. In Double Indemnity (1944) Walter (Fred MacMurray) confesses into a Dictaphone how he became a “sucker” after meeting Phyllis (Barbara Stanwyck); the wife of a client. This was an honest insurance salesman prized by his boss and company. So, when Phyllis asked to secure a life insurance policy on her husband without his knowledge, Walter tried to forget about its implications and her. Later, he further tried to convince Phyllis that her plans to stage a murder will not go undetected by his boss. Nevertheless, after Phyllis offers her laundry list of domestic miseries Walter is swayed from his better judgement into helping her. In The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946) Frank (John Garfield) signs a confession against his married boss Cora (Lana Turner). Frank is not a respected businessman, but he is a subordinate and naive drifter who “tried every other way” before needing to save Cora from suicide over her marital woes. In Out of the Past (OOTP) (1947) ex-gumshoe Jeff (Robert Mitchum) confesses to his new girlfriend what a “chump” he once was for Kathie (Jane Greer); a girl he was hired to locate by her boyfriend. Jeff is revered for his honesty, and tried to send a wire and return Kathie, but when the telegraph office was closed he helped her hide instead. Lastly, Michael (Orson Welles) narrates how he was played the “fool” by his married boss Elsa (Rita Hayworth) in The Lady from Shanghai (1947). Michael is a wandering sea man with almost unimpeachable morals who tried to turn down a job on Elsa’s yacht numerous times, and even slapped her for flirting. Ultimately however Michael could not resist saving Elsa from a love-less marriage, threats of suicide, and fears she would need to “take to wash’in”. To further reinforce the fool’s goodness the camera almost refuses to capture his association with guns or murder. For example, in Double the camera uses pleasure on Phyllis’s face to inform the audience Walter is strangling her husband, and during the climax just shots ring out when she dies by her own gun. In a similar fashion, only a thud signifies the fact that Frank killed Cora’s husband in The Postman, whereas Jeff in OOTP and Michael in The Lady never kill anyone.

The Femme Fatale

Film noir persists on revolving storylines around one theme − the femme fatale will do and say anything to have it all. Since the fools character and agenda is established we can best know the femme fatale by examining her values and goals. First, she feels suffocated making her first objective freedom. Second, she wants security so she covets money and property. Third, one man does not satisfy her so she seeks out others. These aims are not sufficient to label any woman ‘bad’. However, the lengths in which she goes to achieve them certainly are. Let us begin with Phyllis in Double. She whines she is trapped “on a leash so tight” she cannot breathe, yet she murdered the first wife for money and home. Next, she gripes that her husband’s life insurance goes to “that Lola” − as if her step-daughter were an obstacle, or object instead of a person. So, she cheats with Walter and helps kill her husband for a $50,000 life insurance policy. Later, she double-crosses Walter with another in an attempt to kill him. But, when Walter catches onto the plot, she offers him a murderous exit strategy instead. Cora in The Postman will not “rot” her life away on her “half dead sister (in-law)”. So, she cheats, helps kill her husband with her lover, and then has “ideas” for her inherited restaurant and a family. Kathie in OOTP runs to not only liberate herself from her boyfriend, but his $40,000 as well. Later, when located by Jeff she seduces him, murders his partner, and then abandons Jeff with the body. Next, Kathie slips back to her boyfriend, murders a man with a thug, and then tries to frame it on Jeff. Incredibly, Kathie ultimately kills her boyfriend, and then tries blackmailing Jeff into running away with her over it. But, when the scheme does not work she kills Jeff too. Finally, there is Elsa in The Lady. She cheats with Michael, murders her husband’s partner, lets Michael take the blame for it, and then kills her husband. As a final note, unlike the good and honest fool who needs to save, sufficient evidence is never presented to support the many claims of domestic abuse made by the femme fatales. This fact leaves every one of her self-possessed and maleficent acts to be understood only by means of psychopathy or pure evil.

The Soul’s of Film Noir

The fool preserves his soul and the femme fatale loses everything. All fools and femme fatale’s suffer punishments for their acts at the end of each movie yet they are vastly different. In Double, Walter faced a kill-or-be-killed situation where Phyllis had already shot him and then threatened to kill others. So, he was justified in killing her. Although Phyllis shocks herself at the end of the movie that she has feelings, it is a far cry from redemption and she lost everything including her soul when she died. Walter on the other hand, was guiltless of Phyllis’ death, saved Lola’s boyfriend from implication, and requested they both be taken care of. Thus, although Walter faces prison and possibly death – he redeemed his soul with a ‘confession’, maintained his humanity with altruistic acts, and is allowed to live cinematically. In The Postman, after Frank and pregnant Cora finally solidify their love for each other she died and lost everything in a tragic car accident. Since Frank was the one driving he was unjustly convicted of murdering Cora and sent to the gas chamber. However, as Frank awaited execution he confessed to a priest to save his soul, maintained his humanity, and lives cinematically. In OOTP Kathie shot Jeff dead for turning her in moments before being gunned down by police herself. So, Kathie lost everything including her soul for multiple murders including Jeff’s. In this special case Jeff, tried to turn Kathie in twice, attempted to save the life of the man she helped kill, and never killed anyone. Therefore, Jeff is exalted to The Martyr. Finally, at the end of The Lady when Elsa kills her husband, she is wounded in the shootout and then craws and begs to a slow death (no confession). This leaves Michael to walk away with the freedom he deserves, only bad memories, and a full life. In summary, all female’s die and lose everything including her soul (if she had one), all male’s keep their souls (one was martyred), 3 live cinematically (we do not have to see them die), and one ‘wins’. Regardless of film noirs intentions the biased gender scripts and vastly unbalanced punishments are astounding. Moreover, both of these gender stereotypes are inaccurate. For example, men are more likely to perpetrate violent crimes (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009a), and the psychopathy implied of femme fatale remains uninvestigated (Elham, 2005). Nevertheless, the femme fatal made reappearances in such films as Fatal Attraction (1987), Basic Instinct (1992), and Body of Evidence (1993) (Sherwin, 2008).

The Terrible Mother

Be a ‘good’ Mother or else. The femme fatale is not the only female punished harsher than a male in movies. When it comes to parents, films more often bank on a Terrible Mother. To be fair, there are bad film fathers. However, this researcher found several marked differences in the prevalence of cinematic parents. One; there are less bad Father’s in film, and two; Mothers are given a wider range of negative attributes. Moreover, in addition to less bad Fathers depicted in less bad ways, Father’s suffer fewer punishments, and/or are more burdened by power or duty. The following samples are offered as examples to demonstrate these points; Noah (John Huston) in Chinatown (1974) is a member a powerful club, but he is also an incestuous rapist who is not only allowed to continue his monstrous acts, but ghoulishly takes away his daughter in the finale. Vito (Marlon Brando) and Michael (Al Pacino) are both heads of powerful families responsible for the endurance of their clans. Yet, they are murdering fathers both allowed to die at old ages in peaceful gardens while playing with grandson and puppy (The Godfather, 1972, The Godfather III, 1990). Jack (Jack Nicholson) is a father driven mad as the caretaker of a massive hotel, but he is offered eternal reincarnation to murder his family, staff, and guests (The Shining, 1980). Darth Vader (Sebastian Shaw) is the evilest Father in the universe burdened with the greatest power in the universe, but redeems his soul in Return of the Jedi (1983). Dwight (Robert De Niro) is a repugnant, abusive step-father who is merely left whining after viciously abusing his step-son for over two years (This Boy’s Life, 1993). Bill (Dylan Baker) is a pedophile who drugs and rapes children, and then breaks the news to his 11 year old son that he would only “jerk off” to him. Finally, Lester (Kevin Spacey) is a dad allowed to die happily and narrate off to heaven right after condonably taking a teenage girl’s virginity in 1999s American Beauty. Based on these samples it becomes clear that films are reluctant to vilify a Father, punish a Father, or show a Father’s acts as totally indefensible. Mother’s on the other hand have been viable characters for evil and punishment since step-mother Queen Brangomar (Marguerite Clark) in Snow White (1916). Then, around the 1930s film began depicting Mothers using a wide range of negative attributes and/or made to suffer either direct or indirect punishments. The following samples are offered to illustrate these points as well. Stella (Barbara Stanwyck) is seen as a self-sacrificing mother as she watches her daughter get married from the street. Yet, it is actually her punishment for social climbing and attempt at jump classes (Stella Dallas, 1937). Scarlett (Vivian Lee) is everything a Mother ought not to be; manipulative, vain, seductive, greedy, controlling, unsatisfied, and more. So, her child dies and her husband leaves her (Gone With the Wind, 1939). Mrs. Bennet (Mary Boland) is a foolish snob, whose only goal in life is to marry off her daughters (Pride and Prejudice, 1940). Mrs. Windle Vale (Gladys Cooper) is a cruel, verbally abusive, aristocratic snob who controls her unwanted daughter. This bad Mother is punished with a heart attack induced by the shock that her daughter talked back (Now, Voyager, 1942). Frances (Bette Davis) is a classic femme fatale turned neglectful mother. Here, Mother is punished for cheating, greed, and narcissism with a case of diphtheria that destroys her beauty and leaves her socially ostracized (Mr. Skeffington, 1944). Finally, Carrie (1976) and Precious (2009) contain Mothers so bad they are “Monsters” (King, 2015; Regester, 2015). These samples of film parents, along with film noir couples support research that shows older men are not portrayed as negatively as older women (Lauzen & Dozier, 2005).

The Final Girl

Be a ‘good girl’ or else. In the 1960s thriller Psycho the femme fatale (Janet Leigh) ends up at the bottom of a river with her stolen $40,000, but her honest sister (Vera Miles) survives to become the first ‘final girl’ of slasher films. First, this is not only a third trend in movies to punish a female more than a male, but it also peddles a sexual double standard which research shows still exists (Bordini & Sperb; 2012, Jonason & Marks; 2009). For example, although both sexes are killed in this genre, a 2010 study found that females are more likely to die if they engage in sexual activity than females who do not (Welsh, 2010). Moreover, females were “punished” with significantly longer death scenes than men and significantly longer deaths scenes if they were sexually active. Obviously, these films communicate the message that females who do not practice chastity are deserving of being tortured to death. Second, women are more likely to be killed by someone they know (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009) not strangers, and third; men are just as likely to be stalked as females (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009).

Gender Scheme Theory

As mentioned earlier, movies might be a reflection of what cultures deem “normal”, which can in turn transform society, but they have not been a reflection of reality. For example, the Intersex Society of North America lists 17 third gender conditions (FAQ, 2008) including Turner Syndrome (Cutter et al., 2006) and Klinefelter syndrome (Wattendorf & Muenke, 2005). Additionally, about 9 million Americans are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), 19 million had same sex-relations, and 25.6 million admit same-sex attraction (Gates, 2011). These individuals are not only largely excluded from cinema, but the three types of movies we examined are generative of false stereotypes having strong, repetitive, unbalanced natures. To understand how this has fared – and more importantly who we truly are − consider Sandra Bem’s expansion on cognitive development theory. According to gender schema theory (Bem, 1985) we first absorb, process, and store information using mental networks called schemas. For example, when you hear the word dog your ‘dog schema’ connects others thoughts to it such as bone, bark, and leash which may differ from someone else’s dog schema. According to Bem children have a readiness to begin their schematic processes with the sorting and encryption of everything that is male and female. Afterwards, the self is integrated into this dichotomy followed by new schemata which will guide our existence amongst them. However, Ben contends that the only reason sex-typing occurs, and is given primacy by a child is when a society holds gender at its core (211). This would explain why indigenous tribes such as the Piraha people have no social hierarchy, and ethnic groups such as the Buginese people have five genders. As a consequence of sex typing, Bem believes that one’s self-esteem is then unnecessarily held hostage (188). Thus, media not only influences vital schematic processing, but it is doing so deeply rooted in divided sex-typing which need not exist at all.

Stereotypes

Negative schemas and stereotypes are detrimental and limit human potential. In the field of social psychology one integration model stresses the equivalence of a stereotype and a schema (Cox, Abramson, Devine & Hollon, 2012). This theory submits how both concepts can be false, and that a stereotype also makes a cognitive connection between two personal or societal features which are separate (e.g. attributes, behaviors, the self, identities, traits, social groups, etc). Furthermore, a stereotype can exist in the mind of one person, target one person, target a group, or be shared. Therefore, a stereotype (i.e. schema) is an activating source of strong negative emotions, behaviors, and judgements not easily broken. Additionally, a stereotype can activate prejudice in a Source (Self or Other) leading to depression in a Target (Self or Other). This comorbid exchange is referred to as deprejudice and takes place internally, interpersonally, or socially. This model is represented by the Deprejudice Quadruplex having four cells; the Beckian Depressive, the Prejudice Victim, the Perpetrator, and the Observer. Hence, each cell has its own distinctive mechanisms explaining why a person may not fit perfectly into one or more cell. For instance, it is not necessary to have negative schemas (i.e. cognitions) about the Self as a Beckian Depressive if the source is an Other. Further studies linking cognition, stereotypes, and gender role identity are extensive. For example, gender role conflict (GRC) is linked to serious psychological problems in boys (Blazina, 2005) and men (O’Neil, 2015, 2013, 2008a, 2008b; Wester, 2007; Lavant et al., 2006). Additionally, gender role orientation is associated with several work-family conflicts for men and women (Livingston & Judge, 2008). Physiological research has used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to prove that when one thinks about sex stereotypes a certain region of the brain is activated (Mitchell, Ames, Jenkins, & Banaji, 2009). A second research team (Knutson, Mah, Manly, & Grafman, 2007) used this same technique to scan the brain after one had been given an Implicit Association Test. Interesting, this study found that one brain region was activated by gender and racial biases, while another by efforts to suppress or inhibit a stereotypical attitude. A third fMRI study (Molo, et al., 2006) reported that the brains of those with Gender Identity Disorder (GID) were more like the sex they identified with rather than their own.

Androgyny

Just as it was noticeable that matriarchal punishments emerged in film with early masculine beliefs − so too was it that the rise of feminism ushered in cinematic androgyny. In the early 1960’s when the second wave of feminism hit America Vera Miles might have survived as the first final girl, but her brave initiative to run through the Bates’ home looking for clues also signaled her destiny with action. After this, a few notable film stepping stones where women begin to shed feminine stereotypes include; 1962s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? where Martha (Elizabeth Taylor) uses profanity never before heard onscreen by a women breaking down amidst her nuclear marriage. In 1976 women begin to fight back when Chris (Margaux Hemingway) blows away a rapist in Lipstick, and in 1979 Ripley (Sigourney Weaver) is a first attempt at an androgynous heroine in Aliens. In the early millennium, women begin to star as skilled action figures in franchises of box office hits such as The Matrix (1999), Tomb Raider (2001), X-Men (2000), Resident Evil (2002), Underworld (2003), Kill Bill (2003), and more. Additionally, as gay rights begin to triumph in California a sub-genre of hyper-violent and/or hyper-sexualized females surface in movies such as Sin City (2005), Planet Terror (2007), Death Proof (2007), Machete (2010), Sucker Punch (2011), Baytown Outlaws (2012), Machete Kills (2013), and more. These characters do not debase women; they exemplify and merge the extreme in both sexes and are now androgynous – another concept pioneered by Bem (1971, 1974).

Conclusion

This paper reported on the history film has with assigning the male counterparts of couples (i.e. husbands, lovers, fathers, sexually active teens) less negative traits, less negative versatilities, and lesser punishments. Since the U.S. and its film industry are patriarchal-run capitalist systems, the only conclusion that can be drawn from these facts is that movies are typically employed to shape society in ways to benifit both. First, these synergetic efforts start with the perpetuation of two popular sex types. These not only needlessly divide humans into two groups with assigned roles, but they inadequately represented the true diversity of humankind. Next, males in film were exalted and excused consecutive to females being reduced and punished. This resulted in the spread of false stereotypes encapsulating both sexes. Today, the multi-dimensional effects of this socially learned pseudo-world are evident in the gender role and identity conflicts which clearly plague humanity. Nevertheless, female characters in movies refuse to be contained. The nuclear housewife and the femme fatale waned while the female protagonist arose. Now, she is allowed to tote both her hyper-masculine sexuality and aggression while the archetypes of slasher films are exposed and parodied. Therefore, if the characters in movies are ultimately escaping the gender constructs of the human mind – we must be too.

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Abstract

The goal of this paper is to inspect gender punishments and representations in three types of Hollywood and American films. First, characters from a classical era are closely examined because it is at this point in filmic history that gender disparities emerge strongest. Next, Mothers and Fathers in film are considered as they represent major gender roles among many societies. Third, the final girl/slasher film genre is briefly included as a final example of on onscreen gender depictions. Finally, it is worthy to examine the stereotypes which arise from these disparities – and what those effects are on humanity. To begin, although the Declaration of Independence declared in 1776 that “all ‘men’ are created equal” gender equality in film is noticeably absent. However, gender differences are not always obvious to a viewer. To explain, archetypes (i.e. stereotypes) often include one set of behaviors and punishments assigned to females, and a separate set of behaviors and punishments assigned to males. These pairs plainly hold women as inferior to men in accordance with a Freudian perspective on sex (Brannon, 2011, 105-6) to be followed up by another masculine school of psychology called behaviorism. Among these scholars B.F. Skinner introduced operate conditioning in 1938 − a successful technique using any stimuli as a punishment to decrease the likelihood of a repeated behavior. Later, behaviorism laid the framework for social learning theory which acknowledged the effectiveness of vicarious punishments, film, and prestigious models among social learning tools (Bandura, 1971). Looking back, it is conspicuous that with the rise of patriarchal ideologies in the early twentieth century a social learning system was invoked to reduce matriarchal figures. Therefore, since media is a reflection of societal norms which can transform reality (Ben-Zeev et al., 2012) the powers of social learning theory are herein not contented – its motives and outcomes are.

Film Noir

From about the 1940s thru the 1950s Hollywood produced a string of movies which followed a strict recipe of a male protagonist levied by a female antagonist. The moods of film noir are familiar to many with their low-key lighting, hard boiled language, and detective-like storytelling. While the intentions of film noir remain unclear, one theme was apparent to this researcher; women lose their souls. To prove this argument, two lead characters from four classic noir movies are deconstructed to partition the male’s behaviors and punishments from the female’s behaviors and punishments.

The Fool

The The Fool is good so he must save the Femme Fatale. These four noir movies are all narrated by a male protagonist – The Fool − as both a cautionary and confessionary tale. He is single, and met the attached femme fatale through an employment opportunity. Next, establishing the male protagonists’ ‘goodness’ prior to crossing paths with the female antagonist is crucial and serves many purposes. It signals his moral high ground, establishes the conscience and good intentions which plague him, and is a defense against bad decisions to save. To illustrate every component of this opening formula a brief synopsis of each film is hereby offered. In Double Indemnity (1944) Walter (Fred MacMurray) confesses into a Dictaphone how he became a “sucker” after meeting Phyllis (Barbara Stanwyck); the wife of a client. This was an honest insurance salesman prized by his boss and company. So, when Phyllis asked to secure a life insurance policy on her husband without his knowledge, Walter tried to forget about its implications and her. Later, he further tried to convince Phyllis that her plans to stage a murder will not go undetected by his boss. Nevertheless, after Phyllis offers her laundry list of domestic miseries Walter is swayed from his better judgement into helping her. In The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946) Frank (John Garfield) signs a confession against his married boss Cora (Lana Turner). Frank is not a respected businessman, but he is a subordinate and naive drifter who “tried every other way” before needing to save Cora from suicide over her marital woes. In Out of the Past (OOTP) (1947) ex-gumshoe Jeff (Robert Mitchum) confesses to his new girlfriend what a “chump” he once was for Kathie (Jane Greer); a girl he was hired to locate by her boyfriend. Jeff is revered for his honesty, and tried to send a wire and return Kathie, but when the telegraph office was closed he helped her hide instead. Lastly, Michael (Orson Welles) narrates how he was played the “fool” by his married boss Elsa (Rita Hayworth) in The Lady from Shanghai (1947). Michael is a wandering sea man with almost unimpeachable morals who tried to turn down a job on Elsa’s yacht numerous times, and even slapped her for flirting. Ultimately however Michael could not resist saving Elsa from a love-less marriage, threats of suicide, and fears she would need to “take to wash’in”. To further reinforce the fool’s goodness the camera almost refuses to capture his association with guns or murder. For example, in Double the camera uses pleasure on Phyllis’s face to inform the audience Walter is strangling her husband, and during the climax just shots ring out when she dies by her own gun. In a similar fashion, only a thud signifies the fact that Frank killed Cora’s husband in The Postman, whereas Jeff in OOTP and Michael in The Lady never kill anyone.

The Femme Fatale

Film noir persists on revolving storylines around one theme − the femme fatale will do and say anything to have it all. Since the fools character and agenda is established we can best know the femme fatale by examining her values and goals. First, she feels suffocated making her first objective freedom. Second, she wants security so she covets money and property. Third, one man does not satisfy her so she seeks out others. These aims are not sufficient to label any woman ‘bad’. However, the lengths in which she goes to achieve them certainly are. Let us begin with Phyllis in Double. She whines she is trapped “on a leash so tight” she cannot breathe, yet she murdered the first wife for money and home. Next, she gripes that her husband’s life insurance goes to “that Lola” − as if her step-daughter were an obstacle, or object instead of a person. So, she cheats with Walter and helps kill her husband for a $50,000 life insurance policy. Later, she double-crosses Walter with another in an attempt to kill him. But, when Walter catches onto the plot, she offers him a murderous exit strategy instead. Cora in The Postman will not “rot” her life away on her “half dead sister (in-law)”. So, she cheats, helps kill her husband with her lover, and then has “ideas” for her inherited restaurant and a family. Kathie in OOTP runs to not only liberate herself from her boyfriend, but his $40,000 as well. Later, when located by Jeff she seduces him, murders his partner, and then abandons Jeff with the body. Next, Kathie slips back to her boyfriend, murders a man with a thug, and then tries to frame it on Jeff. Incredibly, Kathie ultimately kills her boyfriend, and then tries blackmailing Jeff into running away with her over it. But, when the scheme does not work she kills Jeff too. Finally, there is Elsa in The Lady. She cheats with Michael, murders her husband’s partner, lets Michael take the blame for it, and then kills her husband. As a final note, unlike the good and honest fool who needs to save, sufficient evidence is never presented to support the many claims of domestic abuse made by the femme fatales. This fact leaves every one of her self-possessed and maleficent acts to be understood only by means of psychopathy or pure evil.

The Soul’s of Film Noir

The fool preserves his soul and the femme fatale loses everything. All fools and femme fatale’s suffer punishments for their acts at the end of each movie yet they are vastly different. In Double, Walter faced a kill-or-be-killed situation where Phyllis had already shot him and then threatened to kill others. So, he was justified in killing her. Although Phyllis shocks herself at the end of the movie that she has feelings, it is a far cry from redemption and she lost everything including her soul when she died. Walter on the other hand, was guiltless of Phyllis’ death, saved Lola’s boyfriend from implication, and requested they both be taken care of. Thus, although Walter faces prison and possibly death – he redeemed his soul with a ‘confession’, maintained his humanity with altruistic acts, and is allowed to live cinematically. In The Postman, after Frank and pregnant Cora finally solidify their love for each other she died and lost everything in a tragic car accident. Since Frank was the one driving he was unjustly convicted of murdering Cora and sent to the gas chamber. However, as Frank awaited execution he confessed to a priest to save his soul, maintained his humanity, and lives cinematically. In OOTP Kathie shot Jeff dead for turning her in moments before being gunned down by police herself. So, Kathie lost everything including her soul for multiple murders including Jeff’s. In this special case Jeff, tried to turn Kathie in twice, attempted to save the life of the man she helped kill, and never killed anyone. Therefore, Jeff is exalted to The Martyr. Finally, at the end of The Lady when Elsa kills her husband, she is wounded in the shootout and then craws and begs to a slow death (no confession). This leaves Michael to walk away with the freedom he deserves, only bad memories, and a full life. In summary, all female’s die and lose everything including her soul (if she had one), all male’s keep their souls (one was martyred), 3 live cinematically (we do not have to see them die), and one ‘wins’. Regardless of film noirs intentions the biased gender scripts and vastly unbalanced punishments are astounding. Moreover, both of these gender stereotypes are inaccurate. For example, men are more likely to perpetrate violent crimes (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009a), and the psychopathy implied of femme fatale remains uninvestigated (Elham, 2005). Nevertheless, the femme fatal made reappearances in such films as Fatal Attraction (1987), Basic Instinct (1992), and Body of Evidence (1993) (Sherwin, 2008).

The Terrible Mother

Be a ‘good’ Mother or else. The femme fatale is not the only female punished harsher than a male in movies. When it comes to parents, films more often bank on a Terrible Mother. To be fair, there are bad film fathers. However, this researcher found several marked differences in the prevalence of cinematic parents. One; there are less bad Father’s in film, and two; Mothers are given a wider range of negative attributes. Moreover, in addition to less bad Fathers depicted in less bad ways, Father’s suffer fewer punishments, and/or are more burdened by power or duty. The following samples are offered as examples to demonstrate these points; Noah (John Huston) in Chinatown (1974) is a member a powerful club, but he is also an incestuous rapist who is not only allowed to continue his monstrous acts, but ghoulishly takes away his daughter in the finale. Vito (Marlon Brando) and Michael (Al Pacino) are both heads of powerful families responsible for the endurance of their clans. Yet, they are murdering fathers both allowed to die at old ages in peaceful gardens while playing with grandson and puppy (The Godfather, 1972, The Godfather III, 1990). Jack (Jack Nicholson) is a father driven mad as the caretaker of a massive hotel, but he is offered eternal reincarnation to murder his family, staff, and guests (The Shining, 1980). Darth Vader (Sebastian Shaw) is the evilest Father in the universe burdened with the greatest power in the universe, but redeems his soul in Return of the Jedi (1983). Dwight (Robert De Niro) is a repugnant, abusive step-father who is merely left whining after viciously abusing his step-son for over two years (This Boy’s Life, 1993). Bill (Dylan Baker) is a pedophile who drugs and rapes children, and then breaks the news to his 11 year old son that he would only “jerk off” to him. Finally, Lester (Kevin Spacey) is a dad allowed to die happily and narrate off to heaven right after condonably taking a teenage girl’s virginity in 1999s American Beauty. Based on these samples it becomes clear that films are reluctant to vilify a Father, punish a Father, or show a Father’s acts as totally indefensible. Mother’s on the other hand have been viable characters for evil and punishment since step-mother Queen Brangomar (Marguerite Clark) in Snow White (1916). Then, around the 1930s film began depicting Mothers using a wide range of negative attributes and/or made to suffer either direct or indirect punishments. The following samples are offered to illustrate these points as well. Stella (Barbara Stanwyck) is seen as a self-sacrificing mother as she watches her daughter get married from the street. Yet, it is actually her punishment for social climbing and attempt at jump classes (Stella Dallas, 1937). Scarlett (Vivian Lee) is everything a Mother ought not to be; manipulative, vain, seductive, greedy, controlling, unsatisfied, and more. So, her child dies and her husband leaves her (Gone With the Wind, 1939). Mrs. Bennet (Mary Boland) is a foolish snob, whose only goal in life is to marry off her daughters (Pride and Prejudice, 1940). Mrs. Windle Vale (Gladys Cooper) is a cruel, verbally abusive, aristocratic snob who controls her unwanted daughter. This bad Mother is punished with a heart attack induced by the shock that her daughter talked back (Now, Voyager, 1942). Frances (Bette Davis) is a classic femme fatale turned neglectful mother. Here, Mother is punished for cheating, greed, and narcissism with a case of diphtheria that destroys her beauty and leaves her socially ostracized (Mr. Skeffington, 1944). Finally, Carrie (1976) and Precious (2009) contain Mothers so bad they are “Monsters” (King, 2015; Regester, 2015). These samples of film parents, along with film noir couples support research that shows older men are not portrayed as negatively as older women (Lauzen & Dozier, 2005).

The Final Girl

Be a ‘good girl’ or else. In the 1960s thriller Psycho the femme fatale (Janet Leigh) ends up at the bottom of a river with her stolen $40,000, but her honest sister (Vera Miles) survives to become the first ‘final girl’ of slasher films. First, this is not only a third trend in movies to punish a female more than a male, but it also peddles a sexual double standard which research shows still exists (Bordini & Sperb; 2012, Jonason & Marks; 2009). For example, although both sexes are killed in this genre, a 2010 study found that females are more likely to die if they engage in sexual activity than females who do not (Welsh, 2010). Moreover, females were “punished” with significantly longer death scenes than men and significantly longer deaths scenes if they were sexually active. Obviously, these films communicate the message that females who do not practice chastity are deserving of being tortured to death. Second, women are more likely to be killed by someone they know (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009) not strangers, and third; men are just as likely to be stalked as females (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009).

Gender Scheme Theory

As mentioned earlier, movies might be a reflection of what cultures deem “normal”, which can in turn transform society, but they have not been a reflection of reality. For example, the Intersex Society of North America lists 17 third gender conditions (FAQ, 2008) including Turner Syndrome (Cutter et al., 2006) and Klinefelter syndrome (Wattendorf & Muenke, 2005). Additionally, about 9 million Americans are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), 19 million had same sex-relations, and 25.6 million admit same-sex attraction (Gates, 2011). These individuals are not only largely excluded from cinema, but the three types of movies we examined are generative of false stereotypes having strong, repetitive, unbalanced natures. To understand how this has fared – and more importantly who we truly are − consider Sandra Bem’s expansion on cognitive development theory. According to gender schema theory (Bem, 1985) we first absorb, process, and store information using mental networks called schemas. For example, when you hear the word dog your ‘dog schema’ connects others thoughts to it such as bone, bark, and leash which may differ from someone else’s dog schema. According to Bem children have a readiness to begin their schematic processes with the sorting and encryption of everything that is male and female. Afterwards, the self is integrated into this dichotomy followed by new schemata which will guide our existence amongst them. However, Ben contends that the only reason sex-typing occurs, and is given primacy by a child is when a society holds gender at its core (211). This would explain why indigenous tribes such as the Piraha people have no social hierarchy, and ethnic groups such as the Buginese people have five genders. As a consequence of sex typing, Bem believes that one’s self-esteem is then unnecessarily held hostage (188). Thus, media not only influences vital schematic processing, but it is doing so deeply rooted in divided sex-typing which need not exist at all.

Stereotypes

Negative schemas and stereotypes are detrimental and limit human potential. In the field of social psychology one integration model stresses the equivalence of a stereotype and a schema (Cox, Abramson, Devine & Hollon, 2012). This theory submits how both concepts can be false, and that a stereotype also makes a cognitive connection between two personal or societal features which are separate (e.g. attributes, behaviors, the self, identities, traits, social groups, etc). Furthermore, a stereotype can exist in the mind of one person, target one person, target a group, or be shared. Therefore, a stereotype (i.e. schema) is an activating source of strong negative emotions, behaviors, and judgements not easily broken. Additionally, a stereotype can activate prejudice in a Source (Self or Other) leading to depression in a Target (Self or Other). This comorbid exchange is referred to as deprejudice and takes place internally, interpersonally, or socially. This model is represented by the Deprejudice Quadruplex having four cells; the Beckian Depressive, the Prejudice Victim, the Perpetrator, and the Observer. Hence, each cell has its own distinctive mechanisms explaining why a person may not perfectly into one or more cell. For instance, it is not necessary to have negative schemas (i.e. cognitions) about the Self as a Beckian Depressive if the source is an Other. Further studies linking cognition, stereotypes, and gender role identity are extensive. For example, gender role conflict (GRC) is linked to serious psychological problems in boys (Blazina, 2005) and men (O’Neil, 2015, 2013, 2008a, 2008b; Wester, 2007; Lavant et al., 2006). Additionally, gender role orientation is associated with several work-family conflicts for men and women (Livingston & Judge, 2008). Physiological research has used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to prove that when one thinks about sex stereotypes a certain region of the brain is activated (Mitchell, Ames, Jenkins, & Banaji, 2009). A second research team (Knutson, Mah, Manly, & Grafman, 2007) used this same technique to scan the brain after one had been given an Implicit Association Test. Interesting, this study found that one brain region was activated by gender and racial biases, while another by efforts to suppress or inhibit a stereotypical attitude. A third fMRI study (Molo, et al., 2006) reported that the brains of those with Gender Identity Disorder (GID) were more like the sex they identified with instead of their own sex.

Androgyny

Just as it was noticeable that matriarchal punishments emerged in film with early masculine beliefs − so too was it that the rise of feminism ushered in cinematic androgyny. In the early 1960’s when the second wave of feminism hit America Vera Miles might have survived as the first final girl, but her brave initiative to run through Bates’ home looking for clues also signaled her destiny with action. After this, a few notable film stepping stones where women begin to shed feminine stereotypes include; 1962s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? where Martha (Elizabeth Taylor) uses profanity never before heard onscreen by a women breaking down amidst her nuclear marriage. In 1976 women begin to fight back when Chris (Margaux Hemingway) blows away a rapist in Lipstick, and in 1979 Ripley (Sigourney Weaver) is a first attempt at an androgynous heroine in Aliens. In the early millennium, women begin to star as skilled action figures for franchises of box office hits such as The Matrix (1999), Tomb Raider (2001), X-Men (2000), Resident Evil (2002), Underworld (2003), Kill Bill (2003), and more. Additionally, as gay rights begin to triumph in California a sub-genre of hyper-violent and/or hyper-sexualized females surface in movies such as Sin City (2005), Planet Terror (2007), Death Proof (2007), Machete (2010), Sucker Punch (2011), Baytown Outlaws (2012), Machete Kills (2013), and more. These characters do not debase women; they exemplify and merge the extreme in both sexes and are now androgynous – another concept pioneered by Bem (1971, 1974).

Conclusion

This paper reported on the history film has with assigning the male counterpart of couples (i.e. husbands, lovers, fathers, sexually active teens) less negative traits, less negative versatilities, and lesser punishments. Since the U.S. and its film industry are patriarchal-run capitalist systems, the only conclusion that can be drawn from this is that movies are typically employed to shape society in ways beneficial to both. First, these synergetic efforts start with the perpetuation of two popular sex types. These not only needlessly divide humans into two groups with assigned roles, but they inadequately represented the diversity of humankind. Next, males in film were exalted and excused consecutive to females being reduced and punished. This resulted in the spread of false stereotypes encapsulating both sexes. Today, the multi-dimensional effects of this socially learned pseudo-world are evident in the gender role and identity conflicts which clearly plague humanity. Nevertheless, female characters refuse to be contained. The nuclear housewife and the femme fatale waned while the female protagonist arose. Now, she is allowed to tote both her hyper-masculine sexuality and aggression while the archetypes of slasher films are exposed and parodied. Therefore, if the characters in movies are ultimately escaping the gender constructs of the human mind – we must be too.

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Abstract

This paper seeks to contrast the 1988 Film The Accused with other examples of U.S. mainstream movies depicting violence against women. In so doing, this analysis does not make the claim that The Accused is the only movie to address violence and women, but rather argues it is the first cinematic endeavor to reveal the multi-dimensional aspects of rape. Other movies preceding or following The Accused are often sensationalized revenge stories. These films can then disconnect with both real female victims of violence, and their perpetrators alike. To illustrate these points a two to seven minute scene from The Accused will be examined.

Pre-1970s Violence and Women in U.S. Film

Prior to the 1970s most Hollywood roles placed a women in harms way by one of two ways. She either crossed paths with a fictional being (e.g. Dracula; 1931, Creature from the Black Lagoon; 1954), or she was the ill-fated victim of a disturbed psychopath (e.g. Psycho, 1960). As a side note the “disturbed psychopath” includes the spinoff of the slasher/final girl genre. In either cases, the leading actress often delivers her traditional bloodcurdling scream. As previously stated, this is not to say that no movie had combined violence and women prior to the 1970s or The Accused. Therefore, it is worthy to mention a few pre-1970s Hollywood endeavors to break free of the ill-fated damsel by monster or maniac. Payton Place (1957) exposed issues such as incest, rape, and abortion. Audrey Hepburn’s portray of a women attacked in her apartment by men looking for drugs separates her from being a victim of a psychopath (Wait Until Dark, 1967). Also released in 1967 was Bonnie and Clyde which contained “one of the bloodiest death scenes in cinematic history” (Rovie) to reenact the “take down” of real life outlaw Bonnie Parker.

1970s Violence Against Women in U.S. Film

By the 1970s Hollywood films addressing violence against women had drastically expanded due in part to the counterculture, drugs, and changing attitudes (Dirks). For example, Death Wish (1974) stars Charles Bronson as a husband turned vigilante after his wife is killed and daughter left catatonic from a home invasion. Coincidentally, Bronson’s wife and daughter are initially followed home from the store – an eerie parallel to the real-life Cheshire Connecticut home invasion 33 years later. In 1976 although not centered on child prostitution Jodi Foster shocked audiences when she played one at the age of 12 hiding from her abusive pimp (Taxi Driver). Also in 1976 Margaux Hemingway publicly blows away her, and her 13 year old sisters rapist with a pump action shot gun in Lipstick. Although this movie is a candid look at rape and the U.S. justice system it is a sensationalized rape-revenge story. In 1977 Gloria (Gena Rowlands) counters a cities violent mobsters to protect a small boy and defines a female pop culture gangster. In 1978 I Spit on Your Grave although not a commercial success is a noteworthy gang-rape revenge cult classic.

Post-1970s Violence Against Women in U.S. Film

Movies such as Urban Cowboy (1980), Tuff Turf (1985) Sleeping with the Enemy (1991), Thelma and Louise (1991), A Time to Kill (1996), Enough (2002), Kill Bill (2003), and The Brave One (2007) all contain domestic violence or crime against a female, yet all respond with vengeance and death. Other films such as The Color Purple (1985) and Twelve Years a Slave (2013) rightfully bring attention to the suffering of black women in the 1800s, but they are not of course representative of modern day rape and rapists.

The Accused

Sticking to raw facts director Jonathan Kaplan loosely bases The Accused (1988) on the real life gang rape of Cheryl Araujo. The movie opens with a shot of The Mill − a tavern which ominously transitions from day to night. A young male bursts through The Mill’s door and runs across the street to call 911 from a payphone. Moments later, during his 911 call Sarah (Jodi Foster) bursts from The Mill door and runs down the street screaming. She is wearing a miniskirt and clutching her torn shirt. The real victim was wearing only an unzipped jacket and a sock (Vespa). Sarah flags down a truck, jumps in, and it takes off. In reality, the men who picked up Araujo that night were Bobby Silva and brothers Michael and Dan O’Neil (Pateakos). The movie then cuts to Sarah being photographed and probed in the emergency room. Her assault is not revealed on film until the criminal solicitors of rape go on trial.

Rape Scene Examination Set-Up

Approximately three quarters of the way through the movie Kenneth (Bernie Coulson) the young man who called 911 begins to tell what he witnessed in The Mill that night. It is necessary to first set up the rape because what Kaplan does here is vital to the entire scene and movie. Rather than leave any room for the audience to entertain the idea that Sarah encourages the gang rape − he offers us everything one might view as encouragement. Kenneth Joyce begins to speak and there is crosscutting from his testimony to what actually transpired in The Mill. Joyce appears alert, honest, and sincere. He has revealed that Sara was “really sexy” as she walked through The Mill that night. The Areas of Setting are the bar, half a dozen smaller tables, booths against a wall, and a rear game room. All areas were occupied with customers, lighting was dim, and music was playing. Sarah’s friend Sally (Ann Hearn) whom she came to visit was serving patrons. Sarah’s Costume was a jean miniskirt, tank top, small black leather jacket, and black pumps. Her facial Makeup was noticeable and her blond hair teased. Props and Motifs used are keys Sarah loosely handled before tossing them into her purse, and a cigarette hanging from her lips. Sarah then removed her jacket and revealed her bare shoulders, lack of brazier, and tattoo. She smiled at a man named Danny (Woody Brown) as well as Joyce’s friend Bob (Steve Antin) whom she also joked about having sex with. Sarah consumed several drinks Danny bought her and laughed with him eyes half opened hunched over in a booth. Then, she followed Danny into the game room where no less than eight men and a woman named Angie were located. This was in addition to Sally, the bartender, and patrons throughout the bar. Joyce stated that “(Danny, Sarah, and Bob) were getting really loaded” as Sara jumped around and laughed while playing pinball with them. Notably, Sarah told Bob to “knock it off” when he attempted to touch her buttocks, and she also refused to leave with Danny while smoking marijuana with him. When a song began to play that Sarah liked she took to the center of the game room floor to dance solo. This upset Angie so she left The Mill. Men slowly gathered around Sarah as she smiled, swung her hips, and raising her arms above her head. Still dressed in her miniskirt, pumps, and tank top with no bra she was an erotic sight to see. After about one minute Sarah motioned for Danny to dance with her; which he did. Then, for about another minute she laughed with her arms around him and reciprocated his kisses.

Six Minute Rape Scene

Kaplan’s offerings of Sarah encouraging the rape stop when at ~ 23:19 remaining in the film she states through Danny’s repetitive kisses; “hey listen, hey I’ve gotta go cuz I gotta work tomorrow, I have to work, I’m a work’in thing, I’ve gotta go, I’m too drunk man, I’ve gotta go home {both Sarah’s forearms are up in front of her chest separating herself from Danny}, Mr. Funnyman I’ve gotta go {both Sarah’s arms are up and away from his body}…like…” Danny cuts off Sarah’s sentence with an unrelenting kiss lasting approximately ten seconds. A spectator shouts “come on, it’s your day” and now Joyce looks worried. Danny is backing Sarah up to the pinball machine and pulling up her skirt at the same time. Sarah protests as he is doing this “hey…hey…” {her arms are up and away}, but Danny shoves Bob away and lifts Sarah up onto the end of the machine anyway {hooting and hollering from spectators begins}. Sarah is now sitting on the end of the pinball machine and Danny is standing in between her legs. She protests again “wait, wait, wait a minute, wait a minute, hey…” {Sarah attempts to shove Danny away at his shoulders with both her palms}. At this point Danny accelerates into a frenzy of grasping and kissing about Sarah’s face, neck, and body. She protests again “hey…(faint) no…I…hey…hey…hey…”. But, Danny uses the weight of his own body to force Sarah back onto the glass. When Sarah attempts to sit up Danny places his hand on her forehead and applies pressure so that he can assault her breast. Spectators shout “go Danny! You caught the one my man, stick em!” and “right!”. Sarah is now kicking, shrieking loudly, squirming, and repeatedly attempting to sit up. The spectators are now in an uproar of excitement. They are howling like wolves, laughing, and shouting, “all right!”, “yea!”, “come on!, and “go for it!”. Danny chokes Sarah’s neck, licks her chest, and covers her mouth. A spectator shouts “he’s gonna fuck her right there! He’s gonna fuck her right there!”. A spectator stands on a booth and shouts “all right, all right Danny! You’re the man!”. Danny then yells “grab her hands Kurt!” which Kurt obeys and pins Sarah’s hands to the pinball machine. Danny keeps his hand over Sarah’s mouth while he pulls down his pants and underwear, yanks Sara’s underwear down her legs, and rapes her. Spectators shout; “come on Dan, go for it Dan! Come on big guy! Smell that new blood baby!”, “that’s it Danny make her cum!”, and “she’s lov’in it!”. After Danny rapes Sarah solicitors invite Bob to rape Sarah too with “hey college boy your next!”, “frat boy!”, and more. Sara screams “no!” when her mouth is free for a moment. After Bob rapes Sarah, solicitors then provoke Kurt into rapping Sara by suggesting that he is a “faggot”, has a “needle dick”, and “silk panties”. Kurt eventually gives in to the pressure and violently rapes Sara. Kaplan’s lens sporadically captures Sarah’s perspectives through out her assault. To her left three men stand near a pool table all of whom say and do nothing. Each of her assailants atop her are in ecstasy willfully oblivious to the pain and suffering they each inflict upon her. Beyond that, a solicitor stands on a booth cheering, pressuring, and encouraging Sarah’s three revolving assailants Danny, Bob, and Kurt. Two more cheering solicitors dressed in brown plaid and a vest stand nearby. Sarah looks to her right and sees Joyce – fear, shock, and disgust have all crossed his face. Three men are standing near him; one is wearing black plaid, a second is wearing a long-sleeved denim shirt, and a third is wearing a black t-shirt. All three men also say and do nothing. Interestingly, when Danny is raping Sarah, a glass Prop breaks prompting a man at the bar wearing a brown leather jacket to investigate the noise. While he is walking to the game room, he passes another man at a table sporting a sleeveless black t-shirt and long black ponytail. This man sitting, appears to look back in curiosity himself, but then looks away as if to dismiss the noise/matter. However later, when Sara is being raped by Bob she glimpses these two men silently standing near the game room entrance watching her get rapped. This shot is so quick it is often overlooked, yet Kaplan did answer the question ‘didn’t anyone in the bar know what was going on and check it out?’ While Sara is being raped by Kurt and solicitors are chanting “one, two, three, four, pump that pussy till it’s sore!” Joyce runs from the bar to call 911. Right after this, Sarah bites Kurt’s thumb, is able to break free, and runs screaming from the bar. Somber music leads the audience into stunned silence.

Conclusion

The rape scene in the The Accused lasted just under six minutes and is difficult to watch and read deconstructed. However, it exposed more about rape than most films previously had in ninety − which is actually how long the real rape lasted. First and foremost, Kaplan established for humanity and all time that no matter what a woman wears, says, or does she does not deserve to be raped. Second to this, it forced society to look at sexual assault in a whole new light. Sara was not rapped in alleyway by a fiend, nor by a man she knew who just did not take ‘no’ for an answer. Sarah was raped in a public establishment she felt safe in because it was filled with patrons and two staff members − one of whom was her friend. Although the real rape did not establish a legal precedence for “criminal solicitation” (Gore) Kaplan’s artistic licenses are justified because it should have. Sarah was obviously raped by two additional men who greatly exacerbated her pain and suffering based solely on the solicitation of others. Moreover, additional dimensions and lessons hidden within these crucial minutes are a) the seduction and cunningness of a rapist who can appear funny, generous, and gentle b) the ambiguity of when a rape begins. This author chose the point at which Danny cut off Sarah’s words and did not respect her repeated assertions that she must leave because she is too drunk c) the comradery and kinship rapists can share d) the accord in which rapists can work in unison e) the terror which rape and solicitors radiate as demonstrated by Sally abruptly leaving the bar after catching a glimpse of the rape and being threatened f) the pressures men can place on each other to join a rape g) the shock and fear of a witness to stop or report a rape h) the conflict within a witness to choose between justice for a stranger or loyalty to a friend i) the error of non-rapists and non-criminal solicitors who watch a rape but say and do nothing. Lastly, for those who doubt the moral culpability of the eight men in The Accused scene who never say a word, or do a thing I offer this quote made notable by Edmund Burke; “the only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing”.

Works Cited

Dirks, Tim. “The History of Film The 1970s”. amc filmsite<http://www.filmsite.org/70sintro.html>.

Gore, Donna R. “Legislation and Advocacy: Changing Tolerance Levels of Sexual Assault”. Web. 22 July 2013. <http://donnagore.com/tag/cheryl-araujo/>.

Pateakos, Jay. “Brothers break silence in Big Dan’s rape case”. The Herald News. Web. 26 October 2009. <http://www.heraldnews.com/article/20091026/News/310269264>.

Rovi, Don Kaye. “Bonnie and Clyde 1967”. The New York Times. Web. 8 February 2015. <http://www.nytimes.com/movies/movie/6614/Bonnie-and-Clyde/overview>.

Vespa, Mary. “No Town Without Pity, a Divided New Bedford Seeks Justice in a Brutal Gang Rape Case”. People Magazine. Web. 12 March 1984. <http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20087332,00.html>.

Abstract

Same-sex couples won federal marriage recognition in the early third millennium ─ a victory however which is not likely to dishearten those who opposed it. In 2013 the U.S Supreme Court struck down the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) ─ a law which defined marriage as only between one man and one woman. This definition excluded legally married same-sex couples from receiving approximately 1,138 federal benefits and also allowed states to reject their marriages. The majority decision read by Justice Anthony Kennedy found that DOMA’s goal was to undo the “essential part of the liberty protected by the Fifth Amendment” by demeaning couples “whose moral and sexual choices the Constitution protects and whose relationship the State has sought to dignify”. The court also found that DOMA humiliated and confused 40,000 children trying to understand the “integrity and closeness of their own family”. The death of DOMA appears to be a final legal hurdle for gay marriage, but it is not. The Republican Party, thousands of politicians, religious backers, and millions of conservative voters remain committed to preserving “traditional marriages”. Most of these individuals adhere to Judeo-Christian dogma which states that homosexuality is wrong. Since these views are rooted in a religious belief, legal arguments will not change their minds about gay rights ─ only their own faith and hearts can. This paper will show that a Judeo-Christian God bestowed a much greater task upon mankind rather than the enforcement of moral or sexual practices. Moreover, that America defends this responsibility which includes the protection of human and civil rights for homosexuals.

Diversity

Creationists, evolutionists, and all others in between must acknowledge the true diversity which nature creates in both sex and gender identity (i.e. sexual orientation). When it comes to identifying the sex of a human being there are not just two categories. The “third gender” refers to those who do not possess all anatomical features of male or female, or their gender identity does not conform to a societal role. For instance, variations in chromosomes can lead to a blending of male/female organs and genitals resulting in an intersex condition. According to Intersex Society of North America, approximately 17 biological conditions can identify a third sex person (FAQ; Intersex Conditions). Therefore, third gender persons are allowed to exist as all others simply by virtue of being a human being.

Gender identity on the other hand is to express and experience ones true self regardless of their physical form. For example, Native Americans referred to homosexuals as “two-spirit” people when the body is not congruent with the soul. In fact, for centuries many societies refer to “two-spirit” people in one way or another, and some even consider the merging of feminine and masculine a blessing (Brannon 97-8). To illustrate that this is truly an expression of the soul and not a conscious decision consider the following; in any research study, the sexual orientation of a human is exempt from use as an independent variable since it cannot be altered for the sake of the experiment (Brannon 24). This demonstrates that if homosexuality cannot be directly induced then it can neither “infect” (for lack of a better word) other people, nor be “cured”. These genetic/biological variations coupled with the widespread cultural history of homosexuality are why most professional organizations support the rights of third gender persons. For example, the American Psychological Association (APA) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder on December 15, 1973 and remains devoted to removing the prejudice and stigma it suffers.

Religion and Government

Although the Judeo-Christian faith may view homosexuality as sinful in the King James Bible (Lev. 18:22, 20:13, Rom. 1:26-27, Deut. 22:5) its practice remains lawful. For example, in Romans 13:4 it states that “rulers are not a terror to good works (deeds), but to the evil (deeds)”. This means that governments have only the authority to protect its citizens from being harmed by other people. A test for this model of government is offered with the verse ‘would you be afraid of your government?’ (Rom. 13:3). Since it does create fear and misery when laws on sexual morality are enforced any government doing so does not meet this standard. Furthermore, Paul the Apostle writes to “owe no man anything, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law” (Rom. 13:8). Protection and love ─ these are the overriding responsibilities we have been given for each other by God.

After the law, all that remains is what is owed to the self (morals) and what is owed to God (worship) ─ personal responsibilities which cannot be fulfilled through coercion. With human rights mankind is simply born with autonomy which allows one to exist, love, and worship (or not) in any way one chooses. In Judeo-Christianity man is also granted autonomy when allowed the choice to bite the apple. Whether Genesis 3:6 is taken literally or figuratively, it illustrates God’s endowment of freewill onto mankind in order to guide his own life and soul. If this were not so, then men would be “puppets” and thus hold no accountability for their actions in this world or any another. This is not to say that homosexuality is a “sin” worthy of damnation. It does however beg the question; ‘if God Himself did not interfere in a man’s choice which led to an eternal consequence for all of mankind ─ then why would He want governments to?’.

America Employed by God

America was the first nation to protect the well being of its citizens and their God given right to freewill. In the 1700s Thomas Jefferson was among others attempting to gain their independence from Britain. He sought a philosophy to replace the “divine rights” of royalty and the coercion of the church which had controlled mankind and led to much death (Stanford 21). Jefferson finds this alternative philosophy in a theory known as Nature’s Law ─ the belief that God does exist, but that He does not interfere in the natural world. This theory also views the human realm as a place of innovation and change instead of a fixed set of unwavering moral truths (Pickett 1). Although Jefferson embraces nature’s law he remained a deeply religious man who follows the spiritual teachings of Jesus Christ. As future author of the Jefferson Bible he was no doubt familiar with the scriptures where Christ is synonymous with freedom. For example, “…where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty” (Cor. 2:12), and “Stand fast therefore in the liberty wherewith Christ hath made us free…” (Gal 5:1). God, Christ, protection, and liberty ─ these are the principles Jefferson places within the greatest human rights decree in history. The 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence secures the rights “endowed by their Creator” to life, freedom, and happiness. It also speaks to the third gender when affirming that “all men are created equal”. The First Amendment to the 1789 Bill of Rights then bars Congress from making any laws influenced by religion that would obstruct that decree. These two U.S. documents understood and affirmed that core human rights are not hindered by the religious, moral, or sexual choices of other human beings.

Third Gender Parenting

Homosexuals are just as capable as heterosexuals when it comes to loving and rearing honest, law abiding citizens with the right to spiritual freedom. “Responsible procreation” is a religiously inspired concept (Genesis 9:1) used to oppose gay marriage because homosexuals cannot biologically repopulate. It is also linked to other misconceptions such as same-sex couples make better parents, and that since government offers marriage as an incentive to pregnancy then homosexuals do not need it. First, the ability to reproduce is neither a prerequisite for marriage, nor a requirement for legal parentage. If either were the case, marriage licenses and adoptions would be denied to those who are sterile, incarcerated, beyond childbearing years, or bear a physical disability. Second, in vitro fertilization, surrogacy, and adoption all provide the means to legally and lovingly parent for many non-homosexuals who cannot biologically reproduce. Most importantly, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) released a policy statement on March 20, 2013 affirming that no relationship exists between the sexual orientation of parents and the well-being of children.

Conclusion

This paper sought to change the hearts of politically active Judeo-Christians who restrict the human/civil right of third gender persons to marry. In order to accomplish this, the authority of a pious person to deny others these rights had to be challenged. An important way to accomplish this is to enlighten them to the variety of third gender persons created by God through nature. Although this is sufficient to grand third gender persons their human and civil rights, the point was also made that a soul does exist with an identity seprate from a physical form. This dichotomy proves that mankind neither knows God’s will, nor can claim the power to subjugate the vessel of where He places a soul. Therefore, the use of government to restrict the human and civil rights of homosexual’s is not only unjust religiously and legally, but a sad misplacement of ones faith. In a world where some religions persecute women, homosexuals, minorities, and others, any Judeo-Christian denomination ought to promote a God which embodies free will, love, and protection. Additionally, on the pride that America’s forefathers held His principles and purposes as the noblest plan for mankind.

Works Cited

American Academy of Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics Support Same-Sex Marriage. March 21, 2013. Print.

American Psychological Association. Discrimination Against Homosexuals. January 24-26, 1975 <http://www.apa.org/about/policy/discrimination.aspx>.

Brannon, Linda. Gender Psychological Perspectives. Pearson Publishing’s. 2011. Print.

Intersex Society of North America. FAQ; Intersex Conditions. 1993-2008. Web. 2 Dec. 2013. <http://www.isna.org/>.

Pickette, Brent. Homosexuality. Stanford Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. Substantive revision Fri Feb 11, 2011. Print.

Stanford, Charles. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson. Library of Congress. 1984. Print.

The Holy Bible. King James Version. Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1989. Print.

Abstract

Mothers struggle against a range of patriarchal environments and punishments in Hollywood and American Film. In the book Issues in Feminist Film Criticism (1990) E. Ann Kaplan writes “Hollywood has failed to address the complex issues that surround mothering in capitalism” because she is limited to paradigms (128). What Kaplan meant by this is that films often place Mothers into boxes. These boxes then not only limit a Mothers’ perspectives, but also view her own needs as selfish and destructive. To be fair, mothering in capitalism has indeed never been an easy undertaking. This is because although America is a democracy all branches of government, finance, and media have been typically controlled by men. As a result, onscreen Mothers – even the bad ones we love to hate – not only suffer capitalist issues, but other patriarchal encumbrances too. Kaplan also states that in addition to her boxes, Mothers are frequently punished for having patriarchal ideas and desires (128). These facts do appear evidence in the research which shows that older women are portrayed more negatively than older men in films (Lauzen & Dozier, 2005). Therefore, it is worthy to weigh samples from Kaplan’s own four Mother paradigms against any patriarchal struggles they face, as well as to examine some punishments she receives.

The Good Mother

Stella (Barbara Stanwyck) is historically viewed as a good mother who sacrificed so that her daughter can have an affluent life with her father. However, she is actually punished with an estrangement from her child for an attempt at jumping classes to rise above poverty. In Imitation of Life (1959) black actress Juanita Moore is Annie; a maid whose light-skinned daughter wants to pass for white. Throughout the movie Annie’s daughter constantly rejects her mother’s doting love because she does not want a racist society to know she is black. In the Joy Luck Club (1993) flashbacks reflect upon Chinese-American Mothers’ struggles in pre-1949 communist China, as well as their patriarchal and capitalist struggles here in America. This movie contains many matriarchal sacrifices and miseries throughout; Suyuan (Kieu Chinh) must abandon her twin daughters while fleeing war-torn China. Lindo’s (Tsai Chin) mother (Xi Meijuan; 奚美娟) begins emotionally detaching from Lindo when she is betrothed at the age of two. Later, Lindo is forced into the arranged marriage with an immature man who does not like her. An-mei’s mother (Vivian Wu) is disowned by her own mother Popo for disgracing the family, is tricked into becoming a fourth wife, and then later commits suicide to spare her daughter shame. Ying-ying (France Nuyen) is submissive and allows her American husband to control her. Lena (Lauren Tom) is Ying-ying’s daughter who begins to follow in her mother’s footsteps by forfeiting control of her marriage, career choices, and finances over to her husband.

The Bad Mother or Witch

As Kaplan explains cinema often deliberately “presents the Mother from the position of child or husband” (128) to thwart the possibility that she has her own desires and needs. This paradigm is where Mother is most often misunderstood, exploited, or made to suffer either direct or indirect punishments. The following samples are offered as examples to illustrate this point. Since Scarlett (Vivian Lee) is manipulative, vain, seductive, greedy, controlling, unsatisfied, and more, her child dies and her husband leaves her. However, was she not placed in control of her entire family’s estate in the middle of being on the wrong side of the American Civil War (Gone With the Wind, 1939)? Mrs. Bennet (Mary Boland; 1940, Brenda Blethyn; 2005) is a foolish snob, whose only goal in life is to marry off her daughters. However, this was and is a widely accepted patriarchal practice to ensure the survival of females (Pride and Prejudice, 1940, 2005). Mrs. Windle Vale (Gladys Cooper) controls her unwanted daughter (Betty Davis) and suffers a heart attack and dies when her daughter talks back. However, Mother does mention twice in the film that she was widowed soon after giving birth at an old age. Also in the movie Betty Davis bonds with a young girl over the fact that she too is unwanted by her mother (Now Voyager, 1942). In Hitchcock’s 1960s thriller Psycho the main character Norman was based on the real life murderer Ed Gein. Although his Mother Norma is never seen onscreen a range of knowledge is offered about her via internal diegetic sound as Norman is plagued and controlled by her warped maternal influences (King, 2015). Even in this case, rarely does anyone look − nor even care to − at the socioeconomic miseries the family endured in the early twentieth century. Moreover, viewers do not take into account the abusive alcoholic husband of the real Mother Hitchcock used for his film. Nevertheless, Ed Gain’s atrocities attributed only to his bible touting, controlling Mother go on to spawn dozens of films including The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974, 2003,2013), Ed Gein: The Butcher of Plainfield (2007), Silence of the Lambs (1991), and many more (Johnson, 2013).

Kaplan also writes that the Bad Mother can be either be viewed as “absent”, or “present but resisting” citing Kramer Verses Kramer (1979) as one example (135). In this 1979 drama Mother (Meryl Streep) ‘abandons’ her child to “find herself”, and then suffers a character assassination in a court when she attempts to regain custody. Ultimately, she forfeits custody of her son over to his father for no good reason also. This theme where Mother is punished for choosing career over family is found in other films such as Mary Stevens M.D. (1933) where Mother’s child dies, and The Great Lie (1941) where Mother is obsessed with her career and ultimately leaves her child. In 2009, Mary’s (Mo’Nique) cruel abuses and sanctioned incestial rape of her daughter elevate her to a Monster Mother along with Margaret (Piper Laurie) in Carrie (1976) (Regester, 2015; King, 2015), and Pamela (Betsy Palmer, 1980, 1981; Paula Shaw, 2003) from the Friday the 13th franchise. However, most are unsympathetic to Mary’s poverty, ignorance, reliance on the U.S. welfare system, and deep pain stemming from her own unmet needs for patriarchal love and support.

The Heroic Mother

Many Heroic Mother’s in film are often pitted against a male(s) antagonist. For example, in the drama Not Without my Daughter (1991) Betty (Sally Field) daringly escapes with her daughter from an abusive husband and Iran – a country so deeply rooted in Muslim fundamentalism that Mothers’ rights are virtually nonexistent. In the thriller The Panic Room (2002) Meg played by Jodi Foster explodes a gas tank and uses a gun and syringes to protect her daughter from several male home-invading burglars. In Enough (2002) a Mother (Jennifer Lopez) fights back against her abusive husband, while The Bride returned in Kill Bill II (2004) to reclaim the daughter stolen from her womb by a murderous, controlling ex.

The Silly, Weak, or Vain Mother

From classical Hollywood film right up until the present day many Mothers have played the silly, weak, or vain Mother. For example, in 1944 Frances (Bette Davis) is a neglectful mom who pays for her disturbing vanity with diphtheria and social ostracization (Mr. Skeffington, 1944). In the screwball comedy Life with Father (1947) Mother (Irene Dunne) is subordinate and accommodating to her “tight wad” controlling husband. In the 2004 comedy Mean Girls Amy Poehler’s character with breast implants, pink valor jumpsuit, and small dog in toe introduces herself as the “cool mom” with “no (mansion) rules”. Here, we are so busy laughing at the stereotype that we fail to register the dangerous ideals that this Mom is endorsing. To explain, a 2007 study found that beauty ideals and practices are associated with the oppressive beliefs of sexism and hostility towards women (Forbes, Collinsworth, Jobe, Braun, & Wise, 2007).

Conclusion

Mothers are not simply Mothers – they are also fallible human beings, daughters, wives, and citizens. This means that Motherhood and Mothering is much more complex than the life-long sacrifice and devotion to one’s child(ren). First; Mothers are completely reliant on the opportunities available and supports given from the society in which she lives. It is from this environment that she must procure her safety, food, shelter, physical and mental health needs, and education. Second; a Mother is often religiously, culturally, or civilly bound to a man who limits her needs for love and support along with an innate drive to self-actualize. This concept refers to the need for one to express themselves spiritually, creatively, and to contribute to society in a meaningful way. Therefore, she is not always fulfilled by the solitary role of being a Mother. In closing, when measuring any real or onscreen Mother it is fair to ask ‘was she loved and supported by everyone around her, and was she placed at any societal, religious, cultural, or economic disadvantages?’

References

Erens, P. (1990). Issues in feminist film criticism. Print. Bloomington, Indiana.

Forbes, G.B., Collinsworth, L.L., Jobe, R.L., Braun, K.D., Wise, L.M., (2007). Sexism, hostility towards women, and Endorsement of beauty ideals and practices: Are beauty ideals associated with oppressive beliefs? Springer Science + Business Media, LLC., 56:265-273.

Johnson, G. (2013). Ed Gein & his cultural legacy: movies inspired by Ed Gein & Psycho. Retrieved fromhttp://faculty.cua.edu/johnsong/hitchcock/pages/gein/gein4.html

King, R. (2015). A regiment of monstrous women: Female horror archetypes and life History theme.American Psychological Association, 2330-2925/15.

Lauzen, M.M.; & Dozier, D.M. (2005). Maintaining the double standard: Portrayals of age and gender in popular films. Sex Roles, 52, 437-446

Register, C. (2015). Monstrous Mother, Incestuous father, and terrorized teen: Reading precious as a horror film. Journal of film and video, issue 1, p30-45, 16p.

Abstract

Citizen reporters do not receive the credit they deserve for their service, or the rightful protections granted to them by the U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment right to free press. Citizen journalism is not new in America, but newer technologies have brought attention to its cause. Today, almost everyone owns a cell phone or other form of digital media capable of taking professional quality pictures and video. These personal “mobile studios” coupled with the World Wide Web has led to an explosion of civic journalism via social media and blogging. This new landscape in a post WikiLeaks world makes one wonder just who has the right to free press. Currently, forty states have media shield laws which offer journalists some protections from being forced to reveal sources and testify and in court, but no federal law was in place. The Free Flow of Information Act is a bill that could offer some federal protections, yet its definitions of who exactly a journalist is are restrictive and troubling. For example, SEC. 4 DEFINITIONS, (2) defines a covered journalist as “a person who, for financial gain or livelihood, is engaged in journalism”. This definition leaves out self-bloggers and other “accidental journalists” who do not get paid, yet still make newsworthy reports via a World Wide Web which is owned by no one. This paper will illustrate that America protects the acts of journalism – not journalists and that the world needs their contributions.

Freedom of the Press

When the First Amendment guaranteed the right to free press its framers did not intend that it apply only to those who could afford one (Liebling). Free press meant the full separation of government and communications as the wall separates church and state. America’s forefathers recognized that the only way to achieve a democratic and open society was to not restrict any communication between its citizens. The Free Flow of Information Act actually restricts the flow of information because it only protects a select few in acquiring, publishing, and broadcasting it. Some may argue that only professional journalists should be allowed special privileges with their sources as in doctor/patient, priest/parishioner, or attorney/client. There are several problems with this. First, anyone has the capability to be a reporter. Although it helps, it is not required by law that one have a degree in broadcasting, journalism, or professional photography in order to be hired by an agency disseminating the news. Second, doctors, priests, and attorneys observe special oaths which journalists do not. Third, you can choose your own doctor, priest, or attorney from thousands – but only 6 media conglomerates own 90% of the media in America (Lutz). Therefore, if a source does not trust these six mega corporations with a story they will not receive any protections from a citizen journalist of their own choice. Finally, the aforementioned professions all have duties and obligations to serve only one person – a journalist has a duty to serve the public interest.

Citizen Reporters

Citizen reporters deserve protection because they are best qualified to preserve the integrity of human events. It is not possible for corporate news reporters to be everywhere at all times ready and able to cover something newsworthy. Nor can they rival the scope of reporting by on site citizen eye witnesses. To illustrate these points, the following examples not only demonstrate how amateur material is vital, but superior to professional journalists. When a news crew was absent on Elm Street it was amateur photographer Abraham Zapruder who arguably filmed the most famous footage in history – the assassination of John F. Kennedy. When attacks occurred such as 9/11 and the 2013 Boston bombing, bystander cell phone pictures/video is unparalleled in their depictions of the mayhem, bravery, and anguish. When natural disasters hit such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake/tsunami, the regions inhabitants and vacationers captured and blogged the devastation and effects on human life. Notably, this information was then sought after by corporate media who was only able to cover the rescue efforts (Allan, Prasun, and Carter, 374-5). In times of global conflict and civil unrest, military personnel and civilians are often the only ones present to chronicle war crimes and human rights violations. For example, thanks to cell phones leaders such as Syrian President Bashar cannot hide the choking to death of 1,429 people including 426 children from the worlds eyes. It is easy to imagine the endless possibilities and access citizen journalists have which literally give them the power alone to create a transparent world. These citizens do not make a living off of journalism as the The Free Flow of Information Act requires, but their contributions to society and the truth are priceless nonetheless.

Conclusion

Thomas Jefferson – one of the greatest human rights authors in history – mentored James Madison and encouraged him to write the First Amendment. Jefferson once stated that a democracy cannot be both ignorant and free. Only citizens hold the power to destroy all ignorance and fulfill the truth of that statement. Interestingly, Jefferson was also a huge critic of corporate media. In a 1807 letter to John Norwell he once referred to it as money for lies and a “polluted vehicle” because truth is known only to those “who are in situations to confront facts”. Therefore, corporate news media and weak bills must stop standing in the way of citizen journalists who serve the good of humanity, ensure democracy, and are superior at reporting the news.

Works Cited

Allan, Stuart., Sonwalker, Prasun & Carter, Cynthia. Bearing Witness: Citizen Journalism and Human Rights Issues. Globalism, Societies, and Education, 5, No. 3, November 2007, pp. 373389. Print.

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